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TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL ii BASIC AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE Chapter 1 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT.............................................................................3 Aerodynamics Terminology ...................................................................................................3 Aerofoil.................................................................................................................................................3 Span. ...................................................................................................................................................3 Chord...................................................................................................................................................3 Camber................................................................................................................................................3 Thickness.............................................................................................................................................3 Relative airflow. ...................................................................................................................................3 Angle of attack.....................................................................................................................................3 Total reaction force. .............................................................................................................................3 Lift........................................................................................................................................................3 Drag.....................................................................................................................................................3 Design Features/Controls........................................................................................................3 Dihedral. ..............................................................................................................................................3 Air density............................................................................................................................................5 Angle of incidence. ..............................................................................................................................5 Velocity. ...............................................................................................................................................7 Shape. .................................................................................................................................................7 Airspeed...............................................................................................................................................7 Flap Settings........................................................................................................................................7 Maximum angle of attack for lift generation........................................................................................ 11 Stability and Control...............................................................................................................13 Longitudinal stability. ..........................................................................................................................13 Changes in centre of gravity position..................................................................................................13 Changes in the centre of pressure......................................................................................................13 Changes in thrust................................................................................................................................13 Tail down force....................................................................................................................................13 Lateral Stability........................................................................................................................13 High wing versus low wing..................................................................................................................13 Dihedral versus anhedral....................................................................................................................13 Sweepback.........................................................................................................................................15 Directional Stability.............................................................................................................................15 Changes in centre of gravity...............................................................................................................15 Static and Dynamic Stability..................................................................................................15 Fixed trim tabs....................................................................................................................................15 Cockpit trim controls...........................................................................................................................15 Balance tabs.......................................................................................................................................15
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL iii Mass balance......................................................................................................................................17 Aileron Configurations. ..........................................................................................................17 Differential...........................................................................................................................................17 Frise....................................................................................................................................................17 Flaperon..............................................................................................................................................17 Manoeuvring............................................................................................................................17 Forces acting on an aircraft................................................................................................................17 Lift.......................................................................................................................................................17 Lift.......................................................................................................................................................19 Thrust .................................................................................................................................................19 Drag ...................................................................................................................................................19 The forces in a stabilised descent.........................................................................................19 Lift.......................................................................................................................................................19 Weight.................................................................................................................................................19 Thrust .................................................................................................................................................19 Drag ...................................................................................................................................................19 Centripetal force/G loading.................................................................................................................21 Factors affecting climb performance....................................................................................21 Rate of climb.......................................................................................................................................21 Factors that affect rate and angle of climb...........................................................................23 Weight.................................................................................................................................................23 Power..................................................................................................................................................23 Aircraft Configuration..........................................................................................................................23 Bank angle..........................................................................................................................................23 Density altitude...................................................................................................................................23 Aerodynamic Efficiency. .....................................................................................................................23 Temperature........................................................................................................................................25 Factors affecting descent.......................................................................................................25 Rate of descent...................................................................................................................................25 Angle of descent.................................................................................................................................25 Turning.....................................................................................................................................27 Wing Loading......................................................................................................................................27 Load Factor.........................................................................................................................................27 Effects of bank angle..............................................................................................................27 Stall airspeed......................................................................................................................................27 Airframe..............................................................................................................................................27 Limitations on steep turns. ....................................................................................................27 Stalling, Spinning And Spiral Dives.......................................................................................27 Sloppy controls...................................................................................................................................29 Stall warning device............................................................................................................................29
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL iv Stick or control column position .........................................................................................................29 Stall buffet...........................................................................................................................................29 Stall recovery procedure.....................................................................................................................30 The factors which will result in stall speed changes...........................................................................30 Flaps...................................................................................................................................................30 Power..................................................................................................................................................30 Weight.................................................................................................................................................30 Wing shear, gusts and thermals. ........................................................................................................31 Rolling G loading. ...............................................................................................................................31 Windrop Stall and Spin recovery. .......................................................................................................31 Spin recovery technique.....................................................................................................................33 Taxi, Take-Off, And Landing...................................................................................................33 Nose wheel aircraft.............................................................................................................................33 Tail wheel aircraft................................................................................................................................33 Propeller torque..................................................................................................................................33 Gyroscopic effect................................................................................................................................35 Ground effect......................................................................................................................................35 Wheelbarrowing..................................................................................................................................35 Prevent or recover from wheelbarrowing............................................................................................37 Pilot induced oscillations.....................................................................................................................37 Overcontrol.........................................................................................................................................37 Control Sensitivity...............................................................................................................................37 Inexperience or Lack of Training.........................................................................................................37 Prevent or recover from pilot induced oscillation................................................................................37 Takeoff and landing into wind. ............................................................................................................39 Using flap during the landing phase. ..................................................................................................39 Attitude during descent path...............................................................................................................39 The approach path angle....................................................................................................................39 The landing roll...................................................................................................................................39 Indications of wind shear during takeoff or landing............................................................41 Airspeed fluctuations. .........................................................................................................................41 Rate of descent or climb changes. .....................................................................................................41 Unstable approach or flight path.........................................................................................................41 Wake Turbulence.....................................................................................................................41 Vortex flow..........................................................................................................................................41 Aircraft Weight. ...................................................................................................................................41 Speed. ................................................................................................................................................41 Wing Shape........................................................................................................................................41 Cruise flight.........................................................................................................................................41
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL v Takeoff. ...............................................................................................................................................43 Landing...............................................................................................................................................43 Avoiding vortices on takeoff................................................................................................................43 Avoid vortices on landing....................................................................................................................43 Avoid vortices in flight.........................................................................................................................43 Rotor Downwash. ...............................................................................................................................43 Chapter 2 Weight And Balance...................................................................................45 Moments.............................................................................................................................................45 Moment arms......................................................................................................................................45 Datum.................................................................................................................................................45 Basic empty weight (BEW).................................................................................................................45 Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW). .....................................................................................................45 Landing weight....................................................................................................................................45 Centre of gravity. ................................................................................................................................45 Types of loading systems. ..................................................................................................................45 Categories of operation. .....................................................................................................................47 CG changes effect aircraft stability.....................................................................................................47 Seat weight limitations........................................................................................................................47 Usable/Unusable fuel loads................................................................................................................47 Weight and balance calculation.............................................................................................47 Chapter 3 Aircraft Performance Considerations.......................................................53 Performance knowledge.........................................................................................................53 The effects of weight...........................................................................................................................53 The effects of air density.....................................................................................................................53 Aircraft performance terminology.........................................................................................53 Takeoff safety speed (T.O.S.S)...........................................................................................................53 Takeoff rejection point.........................................................................................................................55 Changes in performance - Weight and Altitude. ..................................................................55 Glide range.........................................................................................................................................55 Takeoff distance .................................................................................................................................55 Landing distance ................................................................................................................................55 Glide range.........................................................................................................................................57 Maximum angle climb.........................................................................................................................57 Cruise climb........................................................................................................................................57 The benefits of an into wind takeoff....................................................................................................57 Crosswind takeoff technique...............................................................................................................59 Short field takeoff technique ..............................................................................................................59 Soft field takeoff technique. ................................................................................................................59 Soft field..............................................................................................................................................59
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL vi Rough field..........................................................................................................................................59 Runway slope.....................................................................................................................................61 Pre-takeoff checks..............................................................................................................................61 Pre-takeoff safety brief........................................................................................................................61 Into wind landing.................................................................................................................................61 Cross wind landing. ............................................................................................................................63 Aiming point........................................................................................................................................63 Flare point...........................................................................................................................................63 Crosswind approach techniques.........................................................................................................63 Crabbed Approach..............................................................................................................................63 Wing down approach..........................................................................................................................63 Landing technique for nose wheel aircraft..........................................................................................63 Final Approach....................................................................................................................................63 Hold off. ..............................................................................................................................................65 Landing rollout....................................................................................................................................65 Pilot induced oscillation (PIO).............................................................................................................65 Legislative requirements.....................................................................................................................65 Speed. ................................................................................................................................................65 Turns on takeoff and landing. .............................................................................................................65 Departing ...........................................................................................................................................67 Arriving ...............................................................................................................................................67 The standard circuit pattern................................................................................................................67 Upwind leg .........................................................................................................................................67 Crosswind leg ....................................................................................................................................67 Downwind leg. ....................................................................................................................................67 Base leg..............................................................................................................................................67 Final leg .............................................................................................................................................67 Pre-landing checks.............................................................................................................................67 Departing the circuit area....................................................................................................................68 Joining on base leg.............................................................................................................................68 Taxi after landing.................................................................................................................................68 Transiting flights..................................................................................................................................68 The effect of wind on ground handling................................................................................................68 Control deflections in wind on ground.................................................................................................68 Testing brakes.....................................................................................................................................69 Directional control for emergency braking..........................................................................................69 Chapter 4 Emergency Procedures. ............................................................................71 Forced landings..................................................................................................................................71 Pre-selection ......................................................................................................................................71
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL vii Procedure...........................................................................................................................................71 Engine failure on takeoff.....................................................................................................................73 Engine failure in the circuit..................................................................................................................73 Procedure...........................................................................................................................................73 Electrical failure. .................................................................................................................................73 Control failure or jammed controls......................................................................................................74 Missed approach/go-around...............................................................................................................74 Initiation. .............................................................................................................................................74 Power, pitch and trim..........................................................................................................................74 Flaps...................................................................................................................................................74 Climb and Turn. ..................................................................................................................................75 Communicate......................................................................................................................................75 Maintain Awareness............................................................................................................................75 Chapter 5 Aircraft General Knowledge. .....................................................................77 Terminology.............................................................................................................................77 Direction as a three figure group. .......................................................................................................77 Direction as a two figure group...........................................................................................................77 Direction relative to a clock code........................................................................................................77 True (T) direction. ...............................................................................................................................77 Distance units in navigation................................................................................................................77 Visibility...............................................................................................................................................77 LMT to UTC. .......................................................................................................................................79 Converting UTC to Local Times..........................................................................................................79 Vertical measurement.........................................................................................................................79 Height, altitude and elevation. ...............................................................................................79 Height. ................................................................................................................................................79 Temperature........................................................................................................................................81 Atmospheric pressure.........................................................................................................................81 Weight.................................................................................................................................................81 Liquid volume......................................................................................................................................81 Wind, runway direction and Crosswind...............................................................................................81 The appropriate runway for takeoff or landing....................................................................................81 The direction of any crosswind component. .......................................................................................81 The angle of the crosswind component..............................................................................................81 Chapter 6 Power Plants And Systems. ......................................................................85 Engine Components & Electrical Definitions.......................................................................85 Two-stroke engines.............................................................................................................................85 Compression/Intake............................................................................................................................85
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL viii Power/Exhaust....................................................................................................................................85 Four-stroke engines............................................................................................................................85 Intake..................................................................................................................................................85 Exhaust...............................................................................................................................................87 Electrical Systems. .............................................................................................................................87 Battery. ...............................................................................................................................................87 Alternator or Generator.......................................................................................................................87 Voltage Regulator...............................................................................................................................87 Bus Bar...............................................................................................................................................87 Circuit Breakers/Fuses. ......................................................................................................................87 Wiring..................................................................................................................................................87 Electrical Loads. .................................................................................................................................88 Piston Rings........................................................................................................................................88 Inlet and Exhaust Valves. ...................................................................................................................88 Crankshaft. .........................................................................................................................................88 Camshaft. ...........................................................................................................................................88 Spark Plugs. .......................................................................................................................................88 Carburettor..........................................................................................................................................88 Fuel Injection. .....................................................................................................................................88 Throttle................................................................................................................................................88 Throttle Body. .....................................................................................................................................89 Electronic Ignition (CDI)......................................................................................................................89 Dual Ignition........................................................................................................................................89 Regulator/Rectifier..............................................................................................................................89 Battery. ...............................................................................................................................................89 Battery Compartment Vent. ................................................................................................................89 Propeller. ............................................................................................................................................89 Circuit Breakers..................................................................................................................................89 Fuses..................................................................................................................................................89 Bus Bar...............................................................................................................................................89 Oil Cooler............................................................................................................................................89 Radiator..............................................................................................................................................89 Fuel Tank Vents. .................................................................................................................................89 Engine monitoring...............................................................................................................................91 Tachometer (Engine RPM). ................................................................................................................91 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT). ......................................................................................................91 Voltmeter.............................................................................................................................................91 Ammeter.............................................................................................................................................91 Fuel Pressure. ....................................................................................................................................91
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL ix Oil Temperature. .................................................................................................................................91 Oil Pressure........................................................................................................................................91 Factors affecting power output of an engine. ......................................................................92 Throttle Position..................................................................................................................................92 Revolutions Per Minute (RPM)...........................................................................................................92 Air Density. .........................................................................................................................................92 Fuel And Oils. ..........................................................................................................................92 Safety when refuelling. .......................................................................................................................92 Static Electricity. .................................................................................................................................92 Fire Hazards.......................................................................................................................................92 Proper Equipment Usage. ..................................................................................................................92 Emergency Preparedness..................................................................................................................93 Fuel drain check. ................................................................................................................................93 Sources of fuel contamination. ...........................................................................................................93 Filling tanks prior to overnight parking................................................................................................93 Engine lubrication...............................................................................................................................93 Reducing Friction................................................................................................................................93 Heat Dissipation..................................................................................................................................93 Corrosion Protection...........................................................................................................................93 Cleaning..............................................................................................................................................94 Fuel and oil terminology.........................................................................................................94 Viscosity..............................................................................................................................................94 Oil sump..............................................................................................................................................94 Multi-grade oil.....................................................................................................................................94 Octane rating......................................................................................................................................94 Aviation fuel types. .................................................................................................................94 Avgas..................................................................................................................................................94 Avtur (Jet A1)......................................................................................................................................94 Unleaded petrol (ULP)........................................................................................................................94 Avtur (Jet A1)......................................................................................................................................95 Avgas..................................................................................................................................................95 Reducing the risk of fuel vaporisation.................................................................................................95 Potential errors in fuel gauge indications............................................................................................95 Inaccurate reading due to slope. ........................................................................................................95 Mechanical issues. .............................................................................................................................96 Two-stroke engine premix requirements ............................................................................................96 Fuel system terminology........................................................................................................96 Gravity feed. .......................................................................................................................................96 Pump feed. .........................................................................................................................................96
TABLE OF CONTENTS WWW.GOFLY.ONLINE Y ONLI NE FLI GHT SCHOOL x Pump types.........................................................................................................................................96 Fuel tank vents. ..................................................................................................................................96 Engine Handling......................................................................................................................97 Engine detonation...............................................................................................................................97 Excessively rich mixture. ....................................................................................................................97 Excessively lean mixture. ...................................................................................................................97 Engine limitations. ..................................................................................................................97 Minimum oil pressure..........................................................................................................................97 Minimum oil temperature....................................................................................................................98 Minimum cylinder head temperature (CHT)........................................................................................98 Maximum cylinder head temperature (CHT).......................................................................................98 Maximum RPM...................................................................................................................................98 Maximum continuous RPM ................................................................................................................98 Pre-takeoff ignition checks..................................................................................................................98 Pre-shutdown ignition checks.............................................................................................................98 Starter motor use................................................................................................................................98 Engine temperature during prolonged descents.................................................................................98 Blue or Black Exhaust Smoke. ...........................................................................................................99 Battery. ...............................................................................................................................................99 Ignition switch.....................................................................................................................................99 Fuel vent blockage.............................................................................................................................100 Fuel pumps........................................................................................................................................100 Oil cooler............................................................................................................................................100 Hydraulic brakes................................................................................................................................100 Coolant loss.......................................................................................................................................100 Oil temperature..................................................................................................................................100 Oil Pressure.......................................................................................................................................100 Cylinder head temperature (CHT). ....................................................................................................101 Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)........................................................................................................101 Fuel pressure.....................................................................................................................................101 Tachometer (RPM).............................................................................................................................101 Ammeter............................................................................................................................................101 Voltmeter............................................................................................................................................101 Engine Icing............................................................................................................................101 Carburettor heat.................................................................................................................................101 Preparation........................................................................................................................................102 Engine warm up.................................................................................................................................102 Taxi. ...................................................................................................................................................102 Loss of engine performance..............................................................................................................102
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